The Hanseatic League

Women in the Hanseatic World

The women of the Hanseatic cities are, for the most part, invisible in the surviving records, and the history of the League is, in large part, a history of the men who made the trade, governed the cities, and negotiated the treaties. But the women were there, and they played important roles in the social, the economic, and the religious life of the cities. The merchant’s wife was the co-manager of the household, the principal educator of the children, and the hostess of the business’s social events. The widow could be the principal manager of a business, and the unmarried daughter could be a significant figure in the social and religious life of the city.

This article describes the lives of the women of the Hanseatic cities, beginning with the legal position of women, continuing with the business activities of women, the religious life of women, and the social roles of women, and ending with the gradual changes in women’s status from the late Middle Ages onward.

The legal position of women in the Hanseatic cities was, by the standards of the time, relatively favourable. The Lübeck law, the Lübisches Recht, which was the common law of the League, gave women substantial rights in matters of inheritance, property, and contract. A woman could inherit property, she could own property in her own right, she could enter into contracts, and she could sue and be sued in court. The law also gave women protection against arbitrary treatment by their husbands, and the law required husbands to treat their wives with respect.

A useful comparative: the legal position of women under Lübeck law was substantially more favourable than under, say, English common law of the same period. Under English common law, a married woman’s property became her husband’s, and she could not own property in her own right. Under Lübeck law, a married woman’s property was her own, and she could continue to manage it even during marriage (with her husband’s consent for major transactions). The Lübeck position was, in this sense, more like the Scottish or German Gütergemeinschaft than the English common-law regime.

The legal position of women was, however, not equal to the legal position of men. A married woman could not, in most cases, enter into contracts without her husband’s consent, and her property was, in most cases, under her husband’s control. A woman could not hold public office, and she could not serve on the city council. A woman could not testify in court in the same way as a man, and her testimony was given less weight than a man’s.

The legal position of women was also complicated by the patriciate’s practice of intermarriage. The great merchant families of Lübeck and other Hanseatic cities married among themselves, and the patrician women were, in many ways, the most important figures in the social life of the cities. The patrician women were, however, also subject to the most intense social pressure, and the patrician women were expected to behave in accordance with the patriciate’s standards.

The business activities of women

Women in the Hanseatic cities were active in business. The merchant’s wife was the co-manager of the household, and the household was, in many cases, a business. The merchant’s wife was responsible for the day-to-day management of the household, the supervision of the servants and apprentices, the purchase of supplies, and the keeping of accounts. The merchant’s wife was also responsible for the entertainment of guests, and the entertainment was, in many cases, an important part of the business.

The widow was, in many cases, the principal manager of a business. A widow could continue her husband’s business, she could enter into new contracts, and she could even travel to the foreign kontore to conduct business. The widow was, in this sense, an important figure in the commercial life of the city, and the widow’s rights were protected by the Lübeck law.

The unmarried daughter could also be active in business. A daughter could be sent to a foreign kontor to learn the trade, she could enter into contracts, and she could manage property. The daughter could also inherit the family business, and the daughter could, in some cases, continue the business after her father’s death.

A specific note: the most-cited examples of business-active medieval Hanseatic women are widows, who often took over their husbands’ firms at his death. The Lübeck records contain several cases of widows running trading firms under their own names in the 15th and 16th centuries, and a few cases of widows sending ships to Bergen or Bruges under their own direction. This is not unique to the Hanseatic world — Italian and Iberian widows did the same — but the Hanseatic legal regime made it easier than under English common law.

The religious life of women

The religious life of women in the Hanseatic cities was, in the first instance, the religious life of the Catholic Church. The women of the cities attended mass, they received the sacraments, they observed the feasts and fasts, and they participated in the processions and pilgrimages. The women also had a particular devotion to the Virgin Mary, and the women’s guilds were often dedicated to the Virgin.

The religious life of women was, however, also a more private affair. The women of the cities prayed at home, they read devotional books, and they observed private devotions. The women also had a particular role in the care of the sick, the education of the children, and the relief of the poor. The women’s religious activities were, in many ways, the most important part of the social services of the cities.

A useful note: the women’s guilds of the Hanseatic cities — the Schwesternschaften or Beginen — were a distinctive feature of the Hanseatic religious landscape. The Beginen (Beguines) were a lay-religious movement that originated in the Low Countries in the 12th century and that spread to the Hanseatic cities. They were laywomen who lived in community, took vows, and engaged in charitable work, but were not nuns. The Beguine movement was suppressed in many places during the late Middle Ages (notably by the Council of Vienne in 1311), but it survived in the Hanseatic cities in various forms.

The religious life of women was transformed by the Reformation in the sixteenth century. The Lutheran and Calvinist churches gave women a more active role in the religious life of the cities, and the women of the cities had more opportunity to participate in the church’s activities. The Reformation also had an impact on the social services, and the women’s religious activities were gradually taken over by the state.

The social roles of women

The social roles of women in the Hanseatic cities were, in the first instance, the roles of daughter, wife, mother, and widow. The daughter was, in most cases, a member of her father’s household, and the daughter was expected to learn the skills that she would need as a wife and mother. The wife was, in most cases, the manager of the household, and the wife was expected to be a competent household manager, a good cook, and a gracious hostess. The mother was, in most cases, the principal educator of the children, and the mother was expected to be a good Christian and a good citizen. The widow was, in many cases, an important figure in the social life of the city, and the widow was expected to maintain the family’s social position.

The social roles of women were, in the second instance, the roles of guildswoman, lay sister, and patron. The guildswoman was a member of one of the women’s guilds, the organisations of women who worked in a particular trade. The lay sister was a member of a religious order, and the lay sister was expected to live a life of prayer and service. The patron was a wealthy woman who supported the arts, the church, and the poor, and the patron was an important figure in the cultural life of the city.

A specific note: the Kauffrau (female merchant) of the Hanseatic cities had, in a sense, more legal rights than the marchande of France or the mercadera of Castile, and substantially more than the English common-law feme covert. The Lübeck law’s provisions for women’s property and contract rights were, in this respect, ahead of their time — a fact that was sometimes noted by foreign observers. The 16th-century jurist Oldekop, for example, commented favourably on the Lübeck treatment of widows.

The gradual changes in women’s status

The status of women in the Hanseatic cities changed gradually over the centuries, and the changes were, on the whole, in the direction of greater equality. The legal position of women was strengthened in the late Middle Ages, and the rights of women in matters of inheritance, property, and contract were better protected. The business activities of women became more common, and the women of the cities had a more active role in the commercial life of the cities. The religious life of women became more active, and the women of the cities had a more active role in the church’s activities.

The changes in women’s status were, however, not uniform, and the changes were not always in the direction of greater equality. The Reformation, for example, had a mixed impact on the status of women: the Lutheran and Calvinist churches gave women a more active role in the religious life of the cities, but the Reformation also closed many of the convents and religious orders that had been important centres of women’s activities. The Thirty Years War had a particularly negative impact on the status of women, and the war’s devastation reduced the opportunities for women in many cities.

Further reading